I have a class which I would like to instantiate using different sets of input parameters, comparing a property on the resultant object to a passed in value.
I am using the indirect flag on #pytest.fixture for the arguments which are sent to the class constructor. I am trying to unpack kwargs in the constructor. Unsuccesfully. This is the error:
TypeError: type object argument after ** must be a mapping, not SubRequest
Code:
import pytest
class MyClass:
def __init__(self, a):
self.a = a
#pytest.fixture
def my_object(request):
yield MyClass(**request)
# first element = arguments to MyClass, second element = value to compare test to
TEST_CASES = [({"a":1}, 1)]
#pytest.mark.parametrize("test, expected", TEST_CASES, indirect=["test"])
def test_1(my_object, test, expected):
assert my_object.a == expected
My goal is to have the object arguments and their test value TEST_CASES in one structure for easy inspection
I've suggest you a working example. Problem was in test code design. The parameter indirect should be True. Indirect parametrization with multiple fixtures should be done as described in docs. And fixture got all params in his request.param attribute.
import pytest
class MyClass:
def __init__(self, a):
self.a = a
#pytest.yield_fixture
def test_case(request):
params, expected = request.param
yield MyClass(**params), expected
# first element = arguments to MyClass, second element = value to compare test to
TEST_CASES = [({"a": 1}, 1)]
#pytest.mark.parametrize("test_case", TEST_CASES, indirect=True)
def test_1(test_case):
my_object, expected = test_case
assert my_object.a == expected
Related
I would like to use a flexible fixture for a data call that can be reused across the test suite. For this purpose I like to ideally pass on more than on parameter. However the code fragment below generally works only for one parameter:
#pytest.fixture
def getData(request):
"""Variable data query"""
data_detail = request.param
In the pytest documentation there is no hint that more than one parameter may work, e.g. such as:
#pytest.fixture
def getData(request):
"""Variable data query"""
data_detail = request.param[0]
time_detail = request.param[1]
Does anyone have a hint how to build a pytest fixture to which several parameters / arguments may be passed on?
You can use a tuple or a dict as the fixture parameter:
#pytest.fixture
def tuple_params(request):
yield sum(request.param)
#pytest.mark.parametrize("tuple_params", [(1, 2, 3)], indirect=True)
def test_tuple_params(tuple_params):
print(tuple_params) # 6
#pytest.fixture
def dict_params(request):
yield f"{request.param['a']}_{request.param['b']}"
#pytest.mark.parametrize("dict_params", [{"a": "foo", "b": "bar"}],
indirect=True)
def test_dict_params(dict_params):
print(dict_params) # foo_bar
Generally, the parameter can be any object, so you can always put your fixture parameters in a suitable object.
With a tuple or a list parameter, you can also access the values per index as in your example.
I'm trying to implement something like clever parameters converter function with Scala.
Basically in my program I need to read parameters from a properties file, so obviously they are all strings and I would like then to convert each parameter in a specific type that I pass as parameter.
This is the implementation that I start coding:
def getParam[T](key : String , value : String, paramClass : T): Any = {
value match {
paramClass match {
case i if i == Int => value.trim.toInt
case b if b == Boolean => value.trim.toBoolean
case _ => value.trim
}
}
/* Exception handling is missing at the moment */
}
Usage:
val convertedInt = getParam("some.int.property.key", "10", Int)
val convertedBoolean = getParam("some.boolean.property.key", "true", Boolean)
val plainString = getParam("some.string.property.key", "value",String)
Points to note:
For my program now I need just 3 main type of type: String ,Int and Boolean,
if is possible I would like to extends to more object type
This is not clever, cause I need to explicit the matching against every possibile type to convert, I would like an more reflectional like approach
This code doesn't work, it give me compile error: "object java.lang.String is not a value" when I try to convert( actually no conversion happen because property values came as String).
Can anyone help me? I'm quite newbie in Scala and maybe I missing something
The Scala approach for a problem that you are trying to solve is context bounds. Given a type T you can require an object like ParamMeta[T], which will do all conversions for you. So you can rewrite your code to something like this:
trait ParamMeta[T] {
def apply(v: String): T
}
def getParam[T](key: String, value: String)(implicit meta: ParamMeta[T]): T =
meta(value.trim)
implicit case object IntMeta extends ParamMeta[Int] {
def apply(v: String): Int = v.toInt
}
// and so on
getParam[Int](/* ... */, "127") // = 127
There is even no need to throw exceptions! If you supply an unsupported type as getParam type argument, code will even not compile. You can rewrite signature of getParam using a syntax sugar for context bounds, T: Bound, which will require implicit value Bound[T], and you will need to use implicitly[Bound[T]] to access that values (because there will be no parameter name for it).
Also this code does not use reflection at all, because compiler searches for an implicit value ParamMeta[Int], founds it in object IntMeta and rewrites function call like getParam[Int](..., "127")(IntMeta), so it will get all required values at compile time.
If you feel that writing those case objects is too boilerplate, and you are sure that you will not need another method in these objects in future (for example, to convert T back to String), you can simplify declarations like this:
case class ParamMeta[T](f: String => T) {
def apply(s: String): T = f(s)
}
implicit val stringMeta = ParamMeta(identity)
implicit val intMeta = ParamMeta(_.toInt)
To avoid importing them every time you use getParam you can declare these implicits in a companion object of ParamMeta trait/case class, and Scala will pick them automatically.
As for original match approach, you can pass a implicit ClassTag[T] to your function, so you will be able to match classes. You do not need to create any values for ClassTag, as the compiler will pass it automatically. Here is a simple example how to do class matching:
import scala.reflect.ClassTag
import scala.reflect._
def test[T: ClassTag] = classTag[T].runtimeClass match {
case x if x == classOf[Int] => "I'm an int!"
case x if x == classOf[String] => "I'm a string!"
}
println(test[Int])
println(test[String])
However, this approach is less flexible than ParamMeta one, and ParamMeta should be preferred.
This example code is based on Atmosphere classes, but if someone could give me some insights into what the error means in general, I think I can figure out any Atmosphere-specific solution...
val bc = BroadcasterFactory.getDefault().lookup(_broadcasterId)
bc.broadcast(message)
After the first line, bc should contain a handle to an object whose class definition includes the method broadcast() -- in fact, it contains several overloaded variations. However, the compiler chokes on the second line of code with the following: "value broadcast is not a member of Nothing"
Any ideas/suggestions on what would be causing this?
Thanks.
EDIT: signature for [BroadcasterFactor].lookup :
abstract Broadcaster lookup(Object id)
Note: 1) that is the signature version that I've used in the example, 2) it is the java Inteface signature - whereas the getDefault() hands back an instantiated object that implements that interface.
Solution: force type cast on value:
val bc: Broadcaster = BroadcasterFactory.getDefault().lookup(_broadcasterId)
Nothing is the type name. It's the subtype of all other types. You can't call methods from Nothing itself, you have to specify exact type ((bc: ExactType).broadcast(message)). Nothing has no instances. Method, that returns Nothing will, actually, never return value. It will throw an exception eventually.
Type inference
Definition of lookup:
abstract public <T extends Broadcaster> T lookup(Object id);
in scala this definition looks this way:
def lookup[T <: Broadcaster](Object id): T
There is not specified type parameter in lookup method. In this case compiler will infer this type parameter as the most specific type - Nothing:
scala> def test[T](i: Int): T = ???
test: [T](i: Int)T
scala> lazy val x = test(1)
x: Nothing = <lazy>
scala> lazy val x = test[String](1)
x: String = <lazy>
You could specify type parameter like this:
val bc = BroadcasterFactory.getDefault().lookup[Broadcaster](_broadcasterId)
Draft implementation
In development process lookup can be "implemented" like this:
def lookup(...) = ???
??? returns Nothing.
You should specify either result type of lookup method like this: def lookup(...): <TypeHere> = ... or type of bc: val bc: <TypeHere> =.
I am getting an error....and I know what I'm doing wrong, but not sure how to fix it. I understand I can't add a string to a integer...Any ideas, I'd be grateful!
self.variables['gas'] = 'gas'+add
TypeError: Can't convert 'int' object to str implicitly
My code:
class Cars:
def __init__(self, **kwargs):
self.variables = kwargs
def set_Variable(self, k, v):
self.variables[k] = v
def get_Variable(self, k):
return self.variables.get(k, None)
def add_gas(self, add, gas):
self.variables['gas'] = gas+add
def main():
mercedes = Cars(gas = 3)
print (mercedes.get_Variable('gas'))
print(mercedes.add_gas(4))
if __name__ == "__main__": main()
Your method add_gas needs two arguments, you're only passing one to the function. Also you are printing the returning value though there is no return in the function.
This one worked for me:
class Cars:
def __init__(self, **kwargs):
self.variables = kwargs
def set_Variable(self, k, v):
self.variables[k] = v
def get_Variable(self, k):
return self.variables[k]
def add_gas(self, add):
self.variables['gas'] +=add
def main():
mercedes = Cars(gas = 3)
print (mercedes.get_Variable('gas'))
mercedes.add_gas(4)
print (mercedes.get_Variable('gas'))
print ('There are %s gallons of gas in the car.' % mercedes.get_Variable('gas'))
if __name__ == "__main__":
main()
So, I see two independent problems with your code:
In your error message you showed this line:
self.variables['gas'] = 'gas'+add
While in your code, the line is this:
self.variables['gas'] = gas+add
That are two different meanings. The first tries to concat the variable add to the string 'gas' which will fail as add is an integer and Python won’t convert integers to strings implicitely (the error told you that). So you would want to do 'gas' + str(add).
In your main function, you call the add_gas method like this:
mercedes.add_gas(4)
But you actually defined the method with two parameters, add and gas, so this will fail.
What I think is what you want to do is to increase the self.variables['gas'] value by add when the method is called, so you would want to write your method like this:
def add_gas(self, add):
self.variables['gas'] = self.variables['gas'] + add
Note that you can shorten that using the += operator to just this:
def add_gas(self, add):
self.variables['gas'] += add
And finally, I don’t know why you would want to use a dictionary for your locale instance variables, but unless you have a good reason to do that, why not just define a gas property for your car type?
I was making my way through the Scala playframework tutorial and I came across this snippet of code which had me puzzled:
def newTask = Action { implicit request =>
taskForm.bindFromRequest.fold(
errors => BadRequest(views.html.index(Task.all(), errors)),
label => {
Task.create(label)
Redirect(routes.Application.tasks())
}
)
}
So I decided to investigate and came across this post.
I still don't get it.
What is the difference between this:
implicit def double2Int(d : Double) : Int = d.toInt
and
def double2IntNonImplicit(d : Double) : Int = d.toInt
other than the obvious fact they have different method names.
When should I use implicit and why?
I'll explain the main use cases of implicits below, but for more detail see the relevant chapter of Programming in Scala.
Implicit parameters
The final parameter list on a method can be marked implicit, which means the values will be taken from the context in which they are called. If there is no implicit value of the right type in scope, it will not compile. Since the implicit value must resolve to a single value and to avoid clashes, it's a good idea to make the type specific to its purpose, e.g. don't require your methods to find an implicit Int!
example:
// probably in a library
class Prefixer(val prefix: String)
def addPrefix(s: String)(implicit p: Prefixer) = p.prefix + s
// then probably in your application
implicit val myImplicitPrefixer = new Prefixer("***")
addPrefix("abc") // returns "***abc"
Implicit conversions
When the compiler finds an expression of the wrong type for the context, it will look for an implicit Function value of a type that will allow it to typecheck. So if an A is required and it finds a B, it will look for an implicit value of type B => A in scope (it also checks some other places like in the B and A companion objects, if they exist). Since defs can be "eta-expanded" into Function objects, an implicit def xyz(arg: B): A will do as well.
So the difference between your methods is that the one marked implicit will be inserted for you by the compiler when a Double is found but an Int is required.
implicit def doubleToInt(d: Double) = d.toInt
val x: Int = 42.0
will work the same as
def doubleToInt(d: Double) = d.toInt
val x: Int = doubleToInt(42.0)
In the second we've inserted the conversion manually; in the first the compiler did the same automatically. The conversion is required because of the type annotation on the left hand side.
Regarding your first snippet from Play:
Actions are explained on this page from the Play documentation (see also API docs). You are using
apply(block: (Request[AnyContent]) ⇒ Result): Action[AnyContent]
on the Action object (which is the companion to the trait of the same name).
So we need to supply a Function as the argument, which can be written as a literal in the form
request => ...
In a function literal, the part before the => is a value declaration, and can be marked implicit if you want, just like in any other val declaration. Here, request doesn't have to be marked implicit for this to type check, but by doing so it will be available as an implicit value for any methods that might need it within the function (and of course, it can be used explicitly as well). In this particular case, this has been done because the bindFromRequest method on the Form class requires an implicit Request argument.
WARNING: contains sarcasm judiciously! YMMV...
Luigi's answer is complete and correct. This one is only to extend it a bit with an example of how you can gloriously overuse implicits, as it happens quite often in Scala projects. Actually so often, you can probably even find it in one of the "Best Practice" guides.
object HelloWorld {
case class Text(content: String)
case class Prefix(text: String)
implicit def String2Text(content: String)(implicit prefix: Prefix) = {
Text(prefix.text + " " + content)
}
def printText(text: Text): Unit = {
println(text.content)
}
def main(args: Array[String]): Unit = {
printText("World!")
}
// Best to hide this line somewhere below a pile of completely unrelated code.
// Better yet, import its package from another distant place.
implicit val prefixLOL = Prefix("Hello")
}
In scala implicit works as:
Converter
Parameter value injector
Extension method
There are some uses of Implicit
Implicitly type conversion : It converts the error producing assignment into intended type
val x :String = "1"
val y:Int = x
String is not the sub type of Int , so error happens in line 2. To resolve the error the compiler will look for such a method in the scope which has implicit keyword and takes a String as argument and returns an Int .
so
implicit def z(a:String):Int = 2
val x :String = "1"
val y:Int = x // compiler will use z here like val y:Int=z(x)
println(y) // result 2 & no error!
Implicitly receiver conversion: We generally by receiver call object's properties, eg. methods or variables . So to call any property by a receiver the property must be the member of that receiver's class/object.
class Mahadi{
val haveCar:String ="BMW"
}
class Johnny{
val haveTv:String = "Sony"
}
val mahadi = new Mahadi
mahadi.haveTv // Error happening
Here mahadi.haveTv will produce an error. Because scala compiler will first look for the haveTv property to mahadi receiver. It will not find. Second it will look for a method in scope having implicit keyword which take Mahadi object as argument and returns Johnny object. But it does not have here. So it will create error. But the following is okay.
class Mahadi{
val haveCar:String ="BMW"
}
class Johnny{
val haveTv:String = "Sony"
}
val mahadi = new Mahadi
implicit def z(a:Mahadi):Johnny = new Johnny
mahadi.haveTv // compiler will use z here like new Johnny().haveTv
println(mahadi.haveTv)// result Sony & no error
Implicitly parameter injection: If we call a method and do not pass its parameter value, it will cause an error. The scala compiler works like this - first will try to pass value, but it will get no direct value for the parameter.
def x(a:Int)= a
x // ERROR happening
Second if the parameter has any implicit keyword it will look for any val in the scope which have the same type of value. If not get it will cause error.
def x(implicit a:Int)= a
x // error happening here
To slove this problem compiler will look for a implicit val having the type of Int because the parameter a has implicit keyword.
def x(implicit a:Int)=a
implicit val z:Int =10
x // compiler will use implicit like this x(z)
println(x) // will result 10 & no error.
Another example:
def l(implicit b:Int)
def x(implicit a:Int)= l(a)
we can also write it like-
def x(implicit a:Int)= l
Because l has a implicit parameter and in scope of method x's body, there is an implicit local variable(parameters are local variables) a which is the parameter of x, so in the body of x method the method-signature l's implicit argument value is filed by the x method's local implicit variable(parameter) a implicitly.
So
def x(implicit a:Int)= l
will be in compiler like this
def x(implicit a:Int)= l(a)
Another example:
def c(implicit k:Int):String = k.toString
def x(a:Int => String):String =a
x{
x => c
}
it will cause error, because c in x{x=>c} needs explicitly-value-passing in argument or implicit val in scope.
So we can make the function literal's parameter explicitly implicit when we call the method x
x{
implicit x => c // the compiler will set the parameter of c like this c(x)
}
This has been used in action method of Play-Framework
in view folder of app the template is declared like
#()(implicit requestHreader:RequestHeader)
in controller action is like
def index = Action{
implicit request =>
Ok(views.html.formpage())
}
if you do not mention request parameter as implicit explicitly then you must have been written-
def index = Action{
request =>
Ok(views.html.formpage()(request))
}
Extension Method
Think, we want to add new method with Integer object. The name of the method will be meterToCm,
> 1 .meterToCm
res0 100
to do this we need to create an implicit class within a object/class/trait . This class can not be a case class.
object Extensions{
implicit class MeterToCm(meter:Int){
def meterToCm={
meter*100
}
}
}
Note the implicit class will only take one constructor parameter.
Now import the implicit class in the scope you are wanting to use
import Extensions._
2.meterToCm // result 200
Why and when you should mark the request parameter as implicit:
Some methods that you will make use of in the body of your action have an implicit parameter list like, for example, Form.scala defines a method:
def bindFromRequest()(implicit request: play.api.mvc.Request[_]): Form[T] = { ... }
You don't necessarily notice this as you would just call myForm.bindFromRequest() You don't have to provide the implicit arguments explicitly. No, you leave the compiler to look for any valid candidate object to pass in every time it comes across a method call that requires an instance of the request. Since you do have a request available, all you need to do is to mark it as implicit.
You explicitly mark it as available for implicit use.
You hint the compiler that it's "OK" to use the request object sent in by the Play framework (that we gave the name "request" but could have used just "r" or "req") wherever required, "on the sly".
myForm.bindFromRequest()
see it? it's not there, but it is there!
It just happens without your having to slot it in manually in every place it's needed (but you can pass it explicitly, if you so wish, no matter if it's marked implicit or not):
myForm.bindFromRequest()(request)
Without marking it as implicit, you would have to do the above. Marking it as implicit you don't have to.
When should you mark the request as implicit? You only really need to if you are making use of methods that declare an implicit parameter list expecting an instance of the Request. But to keep it simple, you could just get into the habit of marking the request implicit always. That way you can just write beautiful terse code.
Also, in the above case there should be only one implicit function whose type is double => Int. Otherwise, the compiler gets confused and won't compile properly.
//this won't compile
implicit def doubleToInt(d: Double) = d.toInt
implicit def doubleToIntSecond(d: Double) = d.toInt
val x: Int = 42.0
I had the exact same question as you had and I think I should share how I started to understand it by a few really simple examples (note that it only covers the common use cases).
There are two common use cases in Scala using implicit.
Using it on a variable
Using it on a function
Examples are as follows
Using it on a variable. As you can see, if the implicit keyword is used in the last parameter list, then the closest variable will be used.
// Here I define a class and initiated an instance of this class
case class Person(val name: String)
val charles: Person = Person("Charles")
// Here I define a function
def greeting(words: String)(implicit person: Person) = person match {
case Person(name: String) if name != "" => s"$name, $words"
case _ => "$words"
}
greeting("Good morning") // Charles, Good moring
val charles: Person = Person("")
greeting("Good morning") // Good moring
Using it on a function. As you can see, if the implicit is used on the function, then the closest type conversion method will be used.
val num = 10 // num: Int (of course)
// Here I define a implicit function
implicit def intToString(num: Int) = s"$num -- I am a String now!"
val num = 10 // num: Int (of course). Nothing happens yet.. Compiler believes you want 10 to be an Int
// Util...
val num: String = 10 // Compiler trust you first, and it thinks you have `implicitly` told it that you had a way to covert the type from Int to String, which the function `intToString` can do!
// So num is now actually "10 -- I am a String now!"
// console will print this -> val num: String = 10 -- I am a String now!
Hope this can help.
A very basic example of Implicits in scala.
Implicit parameters:
val value = 10
implicit val multiplier = 3
def multiply(implicit by: Int) = value * by
val result = multiply // implicit parameter wiil be passed here
println(result) // It will print 30 as a result
Note: Here multiplier will be implicitly passed into the function multiply. Missing parameters to the function call are looked up by type in the current scope meaning that code will not compile if there is no implicit variable of type Int in the scope.
Implicit conversions:
implicit def convert(a: Double): Int = a.toInt
val res = multiply(2.0) // Type conversions with implicit functions
println(res) // It will print 20 as a result
Note: When we call multiply function passing a double value, the compiler will try to find the conversion implicit function in the current scope, which converts Int to Double (As function multiply accept Int parameter). If there is no implicit convert function then the compiler will not compile the code.