In the following code:
def sum[A: Monoid](xs: List[A]): A = {
val m = implicitly[Monoid[A]]
xs.foldLeft(m.mzero)(m.mappend)
}
If I already have in my scope a Monoid[Int] that has mappend = _ + _, can I call my function with an explicit Monoid[Int] which has a different behavior? Or the only solution is to use a more verbose syntax with a second argument implicit monoid: Monoid[Int]?
The code exemple comes from this Scalaz tutorial: http://eed3si9n.com/learning-scalaz/sum+function.html
At the end the author shows an exemple of providing explicitly the Monoid, but he didn't use context bounds:
scala> val multiMonoid: Monoid[Int] = new Monoid[Int] {
def mappend(a: Int, b: Int): Int = a * b
def mzero: Int = 1
}
multiMonoid: Monoid[Int] = $anon$1#48655fb6
scala> sum(List(1, 2, 3, 4))(multiMonoid)
res14: Int = 24
Context bounds are nothing more than syntactic sugar.
The following:
def sum[A: Monoid](xs: List[A])
is extactly the same as:
def sum[A](xs: List[A])(implicit evidence: Monoid[A])
This means that regardless of the way you defined your sum method (either with a context bound or with an implicit parameter), you can explicitly pass the implicit parameter as in sum(List(1, 2, 3, 4))(multiMonoid)
Related
I'm trying to write a function which re-uses the implicit conversions which I have for Object A -> Object B when they are wrapped in an Option in a generic way so that Option[A] -> Option[B] conversions also work.
What I've come up with is:
implicit def fromOptionToOption[A, B](from: Option[A])(implicit conversion: (A) => B): Option[B] = from.map(conversion(_))
This works when I assign a Some(..) to a value but not when I assign an Option val; see the following console output:
scala> trait T
defined trait T
scala> case class Foo(i: Int) extends T
defined class Foo
scala> case class Bar(i: Int) extends T
defined class Bar
scala> implicit def fromFooToBar(f: Foo):Bar = Bar(f.i)
fromFooToBar: (f: Foo)Bar
scala> implicit def fromBarToFoo(b: Bar):Foo = Foo(b.i)
fromBarToFoo: (b: Bar)Foo
scala> implicit def fromOptionToOption[A, B](from: Option[A])(implicit conversion: (A) => B): Option[B] = from.map(conversion(_))
fromOptionToOption: [A, B](from: Option[A])(implicit conversion: (A) => B)Option[B]
scala> val foo: Option[Foo] = Some(Bar(1))
foo: Option[Foo] = Some(Foo(1))
// THIS WORKS as expected
scala> val fooOpt = Some(Foo(4))
fooOpt: Some[Foo] = Some(Foo(4))
scala> val barOpt2: Option[Bar] = fooOpt
<console>:16: error: type mismatch;
found : Some[Foo]
required: Option[Bar]
val barOpt2: Option[Bar] = fooOpt
^
//THIS FAILS.
I don't really see the difference between the first and second conversion. Somehow it doesn't invoke the implicit conversion in the latter. I guess it has something to do with the type system, but I can't see how just yet. Any ideas?
-Albert
(I'm on scala 2.9.1)
Here's clue:
scala> val fooOpt: Option[Bar] = Option(Foo(1))
fooOpt: Option[Bar] = Some(Bar(1))
And another:
scala> implicit def foobar(x: String): Int = augmentString(x).toInt
foobar: (x: String)Int
scala> val y: Option[String] = Option(1)
y: Option[String] = Some(1)
scala> val y: Option[Int] = Option("1")
y: Option[Int] = Some(1)
Looks like a legitimately odd bug. I'd pop open a smaller test case and open an issue (or search for one in JIRA).
As an aside:
You could use some category theory to handle lots of different types of "Option-ish" things.
package object fun {
trait Functor[Container[_]] {
def fmap[A,B](x: Container[A], f: A => B): Container[B]
}
object Functor {
implicit object optionFunctor extends Functor[Option] {
override def fmap[A,B](x: Option[A], f: A => B): Option[B] = x map f
}
// Note: With some CanBuildFrom magic, we can support Traversables here.
}
implicit def liftConversion[F[_], A, B](x: F[A])(implicit f: A => B, functor: Functor[F]): F[B] =
functor.fmap(x,f)
}
That's a bit more advanced, as you're mapping some category theory FP onto the problem, but it's a more general solution to lift implicit conversations into containers as needed. Notice how they chain by using one implicit conversation method that takes a more limited implicit argument.
ALSO, this should make the examples work:
scala> val tmp = Option(Foo(1))
tmp: Option[Foo] = Some(Foo(1))
scala> val y: Option[Bar] = tmp
y: Option[Bar] = Some(Bar(1))
And make your usage of Some more dangerous:
scala> val tmp = Some(Foo(1))
tmp: Some[Foo] = Some(Foo(1))
scala> val y: Option[Bar] = tmp
<console>:25: error: could not find implicit value for parameter functor: fun.Functor[Some]
val y: Option[Bar] = tmp
^
That's telling you that variance is critical, and interacts with implicits. My guess is you ran into a very rare, probably hard to fix bug that can be avoided using other techniques.
You might not be aware of it, but there's a flag for that: -Xlog-implicits. And this is what it says:
scala> val barOpt2: Option[Bar] = fooOpt
fromOptionToOption is not a valid implicit value for Some[Foo] => Option[Bar] because:
incompatible: (from: Option[Foo])(implicit conversion: Foo => B)Option[B] does not match expected type Some[Foo] => Option[Bar]
<console>:16: error: type mismatch;
found : Some[Foo]
required: Option[Bar]
val barOpt2: Option[Bar] = fooOpt
^
And there you go -- it doesn't know what type B must be. 0__ mentioned that this problem doesn't happen with invariant collections, and that makes some sense. In invariant collections, B must be exactly Bar, while for covariant collections it could be any subtype of Bar.
So, why does val foo: Option[Foo] = Some(Bar(1)) work? Well, there's a flag for that too... -Ytyper-debug. Not for the weak, however, given the extreme verbosity.
I waddled through anyway, comparing what happens in both cases, and the answer is rather simple... it's not the Option that is being converted in that case, but Bar! Remember, you declared an implicit conversion from Bar => Foo, so it is applying that conversion before passing the result to Some!
It doesn't work because the Scala Language Specification defines view as follows:
Implicit parameters and methods can also define implicit conversions called views. A view from type S to type T is defined by an implicit value which has function type S=>T or (=>S)=>T or by a method convertible to a value of that type.
fromOptionToOption doesn't conform to the three categories since it takes an implicit parameter. Compiler doesn't seem to find converter with both destination and source having generic type.
Defining a view from Option[Foo] to Option[Bar] works as expected.
trait T
case class Foo(i: Int) extends T
case class Bar(i: Int) extends T
object Main {
implicit def fromFooToBar(f: Foo):Bar = Bar(f.i)
implicit def fromBarToFoo(b: Bar):Foo = Foo(b.i)
// implicit def fromOptionToOption[A, B](from: Option[A])(implicit conversion: (A) => B): Option[B] =
// from.map(conversion(_))
implicit def fromOptionFooToOptionBar(o: Option[Foo]): Option[Bar] = o map { foo => foo }
def test(): Option[Bar] = {
val fooOpt = Some(Foo(4))
val barOpt2: Option[Bar] = fooOpt
barOpt2
}
}
println(Main.test)
Running this prints out:
$ scala so.scala
Some(Bar(4))
However, all is not lost. It's not as nice as general Option to Option, but we can do something like anything that can turn into Bar to Option[Bar] by view bound.
trait T
case class Foo(i: Int) extends T
case class Bar(i: Int) extends T
object Main {
implicit def fromFooToBar(f: Foo):Bar = Bar(f.i)
implicit def fromBarToFoo(b: Bar):Foo = Foo(b.i)
implicit def fromOptionToOptionBar[A <% Bar](from: Option[A]): Option[Bar] =
from map { foo => foo }
def test(): Option[Bar] = {
val fooOpt = Some(Foo(4))
val barOpt2: Option[Bar] = fooOpt
barOpt2
}
}
println(Main.test)
Here's another workaround that can be used for general Option to Option but requires extra .convert call:
trait T
case class Foo(i: Int) extends T
case class Bar(i: Int) extends T
case class Converter[A](x: Option[A]) {
def convert[B](implicit ev: Function1[A, B]): Option[B] = x map { a: A => ev(a) }
}
object Main {
implicit def optionToConverter[A](x: Option[A]) = Converter(x)
implicit def fooToBar(x: Foo) = Bar(x.i)
def test(): Option[Bar] = {
val fooOpt = Some(Foo(4))
val barOpt: Option[Bar] = fooOpt.convert
barOpt
}
}
println(Main.test)
Indeed it's a very strange problem. I tried to use another type than Option, and it turns out that the problem is that Option is covariant in its type parameter. This works all:
case class A[B](value: B) // invariant in B
case class X()
case class Y()
implicit def xtoy(x: X): Y = Y()
implicit def ytox(x: Y): X = X()
implicit def movea[U, V](from: A[U])(implicit view: U => V): A[V] = A[V](from.value)
def test(a: A[Y]) = "ok"
test(A(X())) // (1)
val f = A(X())
test(f) // (2)
But if instead I define A as
case class A[+B](value: B) // covariant in B
The case (2) fails. Case (1) always succeeds, because Scala already converts X to Y before wrapping it in an A.
Now that we know the problem source, you need to wait for a type guru to explain why this is actually a problem... The conversion is still valid, you see:
askForY(movea(f)) // succeeds, even with A[+B]
I improved #jseureth answer and added support for Traversable:
trait Mappable[A, B, C[_]] {
def apply(f: A => B): C[B]
}
package object app {
implicit class OptionMappable[A, B, C[X] <: Option[X]](option: C[A]) extends Mappable[A, B, Option] {
override def apply(f: A => B): Option[B] = option.map(f)
}
implicit class TraversableMappable[A, B, C[X] <: Traversable[X]](traversable: C[A])
(implicit cbf: CanBuildFrom[C[A], B, C[B]]) extends Mappable[A, B, C] {
override def apply(f: A => B): C[B] = {
val builder = cbf(traversable)
builder.sizeHint(traversable)
builder ++= traversable.map(f)
builder.result()
}
}
implicit def liftConversion[C[_], A, B](x: C[A])
(implicit f: A => B, m: C[A] => Mappable[A, B, C]): C[B] = m(x)(f)
}
Now you can implicitly convert options and traversables:
implicit def f(i: Int): String = s"$i"
val a: Option[String] = Some(1)
val b: Seq[String] = Seq(1, 2, 3)
Is it possible to have syntax like (parameter1, parameter2) applied myFunction. Here myFunction would be applied to the given parameters. Concrete example: val myFunction = (a:String) => a+a+"there"; "hello" applied myFunction should output "hellohellothere".
I know it's possible to do (parameter1, parameter2) match {case myFunctionWrittenOut}, so the above would become "hello" match {case a:String => a+a+"there"} but here you have to write out the function: you can't use a reference.
I don't think it's possible with standard scala. But you can write some helper methods that would make something like this available:
implicit class Applied1[T](val t: T) extends AnyVal {
def applied[R](f: T => R): R = f(t)
}
implicit class Applied2[T1, T2](val t: (T1, T2)) extends AnyVal {
def applied[R](f: (T1, T2) => R): R = f(t._1, t._2)
}
implicit class Applied3[T1, T2, T3](val t: (T1, T2, T3)) extends AnyVal {
def applied[R](f: (T1, T2, T3) => R): R = f(t._1, t._2, t._3)
}
// ... and 19 more implicit classes: Applied4 to Applied22
And then you can use it like this:
def minus(a: Int): Int = -a
def plus(a: Int, b: Int): Int = a + b
def plus(a: Int, b: Int, c: Int): Int = a + b + c
scala> 5 applied minus
res0: Int = -5
scala> (1, 2) applied plus
res1: Int = 3
scala> (1, 2, 3) applied plus
res2: Int = 6
But this may be a bit more complex to use with generic functions, or functions with implicit arguments:
def mul[T : Numeric](a: T, b: T): T = {
import Numeric.Implicits._
a * b
}
scala> (1.5, 2.5) applied (mul(_, _))
res3: Double = 3.75
Implicit classes can be used to achieve something which which seems to be similar to what you are looking for.
An implicit class with only one constructor argument can be used as a pattern to add methods to the a given type. One example is DurationInt which "adds" methods to integers to enable converting them to durations. It is imported into scope using import scala.concurrent.duration._
A simplified version of DurationInt could be defined as follows:
implicit class DurationInt(n: Int) {
def seconds: FiniteDuration = Duration(n, TimeUnit.SECONDS)
}
This enables use of the seconds method on all integers
2.seconds // Returns a duration object
For functions with multiple arguments you can use a tuple argument for the implicit class:
implicit class TupleConcat(tuple: (String, String)) {
def concat: String = tuple._1 + tuple._2
}
// enables the following syntax
("aa", "bb").concat
It is common for implicit classes such as these to extend AnyVal, this allows some compiler optimizations which avoid actually having to instantiate the implicit class in many cases.
implicit final class DurationInt(val n: Int) extends AnyVal { /* implementation */ }
In Scala, the parameter list of a function is always written before the function:
val fn = (a: Int, b: Int) => a + b
// ^ parameters ^ ^ function
I have this code to transform List[Future[Int]] to Future[List[Int]] by using scalaz sequence.
import scalaz.concurrent.Future
val t = List(Future.now(1), Future.now(2), Future.now(3)) //List[Future[Int]]
val r = t.sequence //Future[List[Int]]
because I am using Future from scalaz, so it may have implicit resolution to do the magic for me, I just wonder if the type class is custom class not predefined one like Future, how can I define implicit resolution to achieve the same result
case class Foo(x: Int)
val t = List(Foo(1), Foo(2), Foo(3)) //List[Foo[Int]]
val r = t.sequence //Foo[List[Int]]
Many thanks in advance
You need to create an Applicative[Foo] (or a Monad[Foo]) which is in implicit scope.
What you are asking for exactly won't work, since your Foo is not universally quantified (so your expected type for r doesn't make sense as Foo[List[Int]], since Foo doesn't take a type parameter.
Lets define Foo differently:
case class Foo[A](a: A)
object Foo {
implicit val fooApplicative = new Applicative[Foo] {
override def point[A](a: => A) = Foo(a)
override def ap[A,B](fa: => Foo[A])(f: => Foo[A=>B]): Foo[B] = Foo(f.a(fa.a))
}
}
Now if we make sure this implicit is in scope, we can sequence:
scala> val t = List(Foo(1), Foo(2), Foo(3))
t: List[Foo[Int]] = List(Foo(1), Foo(2), Foo(3))
scala> t.sequence
res0: Foo[List[Int]] = Foo(List(1, 2, 3))
As a follow up to my other question, see comments / questions in code:
case class Implicit(name: String)
def foo(implicit i: Implicit = null) = println(Option(i))
def bar1(implicit i: Implicit) {
foo // prints None
implicit val i = Implicit("J") // Why is call to foo above affected although this line comes after?
foo // prints Some(Implicit(I))
}
def bar2(implicit i: Implicit) {
foo // prints None
implicit val i = null
implicit val j = Implicit("J")
foo // prints None // Why? Should raise ambiguous implicits or at least choose j.
}
def bar3(implicit i: Implicit) {
foo // prints None
val i = null
implicit val j = Implicit("J")
foo // prints Some(Implicit(J)) // Now it works as I expected to work in bar2.
}
def bar4(implicit i: Implicit) { // That's how I expected to see bar1 working. A ugly hack here.
foo // prints Some(Implicit(I))
locally {
val i = null
implicit val j = Implicit("J")
foo // prints Some(Implicit(J))
}
}
val i = Implicit("I")
bar1(i)
bar2(i)
bar3(i)
bar4(i)
Your code suffers from name shadowing. The spec in chapter 2 says about this:
A binding has a scope in which the entity defined by a single name can be accessed using a simple name. Scopes are nested. A binding in some inner scope shadows bindings of lower precedence in the same scope as well as bindings of the same or lower precedence in outer scopes.
In your example, this means that with
def foo(implicit i: Implicit) = println(Option(i))
we have the following possibilities:
The implicit param i gets passed to foo because x would be a forward reference:
scala> def f(implicit i: Implicit) = {foo; implicit val x = Implicit("i")}
f: (implicit i: Implicit)Unit
Nothing can be passed to foo because parameter i is shadowed by the local value i which has higher precedence but can't be called because it is a forward reference.
scala> def f(implicit i: Implicit) = {foo; implicit val i = Implicit("i")}
<console>:11: error: could not find implicit value for parameter i: Implicit
def f(implicit i: Implicit) = {foo; implicit val i = Implicit("i")}
^
A value is shadowed when it has the same name, but it must not have the same type:
scala> def f(implicit i: Implicit) = {implicit val j = Implicit("i"); foo}
<console>:11: error: ambiguous implicit values:
both value i of type Implicit
and value j of type Implicit
match expected type Implicit
def f(implicit i: Implicit) = {implicit val j = Implicit("i"); foo}
^
scala> def f(implicit i: Implicit) = {val i = null; implicit val j = Implicit("i"); foo}
f: (implicit i: Implicit)Unit
There exists multiple implicits in scope, but one has higher precedence. In this case i has the higher precedence because Null <: Implicit
scala> def f(implicit i: Implicit) = {implicit val i = null; implicit val j = Implicit("i"); foo}
f: (implicit i: Implicit)Unit
Your definition of foo was declared with a default value for the implicit parameter. This doesn't change anything at the rules mentioned above, but the compiler can choose the default value when no other value is available.
I have seen a function named implicitly used in Scala examples. What is it, and how is it used?
Example here:
scala> sealed trait Foo[T] { def apply(list : List[T]) : Unit }; object Foo {
| implicit def stringImpl = new Foo[String] {
| def apply(list : List[String]) = println("String")
| }
| implicit def intImpl = new Foo[Int] {
| def apply(list : List[Int]) = println("Int")
| }
| } ; def foo[A : Foo](x : List[A]) = implicitly[Foo[A]].apply(x)
defined trait Foo
defined module Foo
foo: [A](x: List[A])(implicit evidence$1: Foo[A])Unit
scala> foo(1)
<console>:8: error: type mismatch;
found : Int(1)
required: List[?]
foo(1)
^
scala> foo(List(1,2,3))
Int
scala> foo(List("a","b","c"))
String
scala> foo(List(1.0))
<console>:8: error: could not find implicit value for evidence parameter of type
Foo[Double]
foo(List(1.0))
^
Note that we have to write implicitly[Foo[A]].apply(x) since the compiler thinks that implicitly[Foo[A]](x) means that we call implicitly with parameters.
Also see How to investigate objects/types/etc. from Scala REPL? and Where does Scala look for implicits?
implicitly is avaliable in Scala 2.8 and is defined in Predef as:
def implicitly[T](implicit e: T): T = e
It is commonly used to check if an implicit value of type T is available and return it if such is the case.
Simple example from retronym's presentation:
scala> implicit val a = "test" // define an implicit value of type String
a: java.lang.String = test
scala> val b = implicitly[String] // search for an implicit value of type String and assign it to b
b: String = test
scala> val c = implicitly[Int] // search for an implicit value of type Int and assign it to c
<console>:6: error: could not find implicit value for parameter e: Int
val c = implicitly[Int]
^
Here are a few reasons to use the delightfully simple method implicitly.
To understand/troubleshoot Implicit Views
An Implicit View can be triggered when the prefix of a selection (consider for example, the.prefix.selection(args) does not contain a member selection that is applicable to args (even after trying to convert args with Implicit Views). In this case, the compiler looks for implicit members, locally defined in the current or enclosing scopes, inherited, or imported, that are either Functions from the type of that the.prefix to a type with selection defined, or equivalent implicit methods.
scala> 1.min(2) // Int doesn't have min defined, where did that come from?
res21: Int = 1
scala> implicitly[Int => { def min(i: Int): Any }]
res22: (Int) => AnyRef{def min(i: Int): Any} = <function1>
scala> res22(1) //
res23: AnyRef{def min(i: Int): Int} = 1
scala> .getClass
res24: java.lang.Class[_] = class scala.runtime.RichInt
Implicit Views can also be triggered when an expression does not conform to the Expected Type, as below:
scala> 1: scala.runtime.RichInt
res25: scala.runtime.RichInt = 1
Here the compiler looks for this function:
scala> implicitly[Int => scala.runtime.RichInt]
res26: (Int) => scala.runtime.RichInt = <function1>
Accessing an Implicit Parameter Introduced by a Context Bound
Implicit parameters are arguably a more important feature of Scala than Implicit Views. They support the type class pattern. The standard library uses this in a few places -- see scala.Ordering and how it is used in SeqLike#sorted. Implicit Parameters are also used to pass Array manifests, and CanBuildFrom instances.
Scala 2.8 allows a shorthand syntax for implicit parameters, called Context Bounds. Briefly, a method with a type parameter A that requires an implicit parameter of type M[A]:
def foo[A](implicit ma: M[A])
can be rewritten as:
def foo[A: M]
But what's the point of passing the implicit parameter but not naming it? How can this be useful when implementing the method foo?
Often, the implicit parameter need not be referred to directly, it will be tunneled through as an implicit argument to another method that is called. If it is needed, you can still retain the terse method signature with the Context Bound, and call implicitly to materialize the value:
def foo[A: M] = {
val ma = implicitly[M[A]]
}
Passing a subset of implicit parameters explicitly
Suppose you are calling a method that pretty prints a person, using a type class based approach:
trait Show[T] { def show(t: T): String }
object Show {
implicit def IntShow: Show[Int] = new Show[Int] { def show(i: Int) = i.toString }
implicit def StringShow: Show[String] = new Show[String] { def show(s: String) = s }
def ShoutyStringShow: Show[String] = new Show[String] { def show(s: String) = s.toUpperCase }
}
case class Person(name: String, age: Int)
object Person {
implicit def PersonShow(implicit si: Show[Int], ss: Show[String]): Show[Person] = new Show[Person] {
def show(p: Person) = "Person(name=" + ss.show(p.name) + ", age=" + si.show(p.age) + ")"
}
}
val p = Person("bob", 25)
implicitly[Show[Person]].show(p)
What if we want to change the way that the name is output? We can explicitly call PersonShow, explicitly pass an alternative Show[String], but we want the compiler to pass the Show[Int].
Person.PersonShow(si = implicitly, ss = Show.ShoutyStringShow).show(p)
Starting Scala 3 implicitly has been replaced with improved summon which has the advantage of being able to return a more precise type than asked for
The summon method corresponds to implicitly in Scala 2. It is
precisely the same as the the method in Shapeless. The difference
between summon (or the) and implicitly is that summon can return a
more precise type than the type that was asked for.
For example given the following type
trait F[In]:
type Out
def f(v: Int): Out
given F[Int] with
type Out = String
def f(v: Int): String = v.toString
implicitly method would summon a term with erased type member Out
scala> implicitly[F[Int]]
val res5: F[Int] = given_F_Int$#7d0e5fbb
scala> implicitly[res5.Out =:= String]
1 |implicitly[res5.Out =:= String]
| ^
| Cannot prove that res5.Out =:= String.
scala> val x: res5.Out = ""
1 |val x: res5.Out = ""
| ^^
| Found: ("" : String)
| Required: res5.Out
In order to recover the type member we would have to refer to it explicitly which defeats the purpose of having the type member instead of type parameter
scala> implicitly[F[Int] { type Out = String }]
val res6: F[Int]{Out = String} = given_F_Int$#7d0e5fbb
scala> implicitly[res6.Out =:= String]
val res7: res6.Out =:= String = generalized constraint
However summon defined as
def summon[T](using inline x: T): x.type = x
does not suffer from this problem
scala> summon[F[Int]]
val res8: given_F_Int.type = given_F_Int$#7d0e5fbb
scala> summon[res8.Out =:= String]
val res9: String =:= String = generalized constraint
scala> val x: res8.Out = ""
val x: res8.Out = ""
where we see type member type Out = String did not get erased even though we only asked for F[Int] and not F[Int] { type Out = String }. This can prove particularly relevant when chaining dependently typed functions:
The type summoned by implicitly has no Out type member. For this
reason, we should avoid implicitly when working with dependently typed
functions.
A "teach you to fish" answer is to use the alphabetic member index currently available in the Scaladoc nightlies. The letters (and the #, for non-alphabetic names) at the top of the package / class pane are links to the index for member names beginning with that letter (across all classes). If you choose I, e.g., you'll find the implicitly entry with one occurrence, in Predef, which you can visit from the link there.